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Motivation & Emotion

Motivation and Emotion
1. Motive - "Inner directing force, need or want, that arouses organism and directs behavior toward a goal"
2. Emotion - "Positive or negative feelings generally in reaction to stimuli that are accompanied by physiological arousal and related behavior. A feeling such as fear, joy or anger that energizes and directs behavior". Involves physiological arousal, expressive behaviors and conscious experience.
Perspectives on Motivation
1. Early theory focused on Instinct
  1. A biological force that predisposes one to behave in certain way, innate and rigidly patterned throughout the species.
  2. William James supported idea that human behavior could be explained by such instincts
  3. Freud - sexual energy, death instinct, aggression
2. Drive Reduction Theory - based on idea that bodily needs produce a state of tension which the body strives to reduce.
  1. Need - food, water, oxygen etc.,
  2. This causes a state of tension, or a Drive
  3. Activates a Response or motivated behavior to reduce tension
  4. Meeting the need restores Homeostasis: All drives or motives are important for maintaining Homeostasis; returning the bodily mechanism to balance.
3. Needs
  1. Cognitive Needs or Non-tissue needs - No physical basis for sustaining the need.
  2. Stimulus Motivation (curiosity, need for change)
  3. Learned needs - Learned by association, e.g.. learn the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers
4. Intrinsic Motivation: Natural motivation, no external reward. Curiosity & Activity (plays piano because loves to do so)
5. Extrinsic Motivation: From obvious external factors, "rewards" (auto rebates)
6. Incentive - The external stimulus that prompts goal directed behavior. It has "attractiveness" to encourage us to seek the goal; "an external cue that activates motivation"
Arousal Theory - There is an ideal level of arousal for various activities
1. Inverted U concept - A moderate amount of arousal is desirable for optimal performance.
2. Performance depends on the task: Yerkes - Dodson Law
  1. Simple - Optimal level will be high arousal
  2. Complex - Optimal level will be low arousal
Primary Drives - are physiologically based
1. Hunger
  1. Physiological Mechanisms
    1. Because stomach growls, thought empty stomach caused stomach pains
    2. Cannon & Washburn (1912): Washburn swallowed balloon to see if contractions caused stomach pains. They originally thought these to be the cause of hunger.
    3. We find those with stomachs removed still have hunger pains. Clues come from stomach, intestines and hormones.
    4. Liver
      1. Cleans system, detoxifies, stores energy, and monitors glucose.
      2. Sends signals to hypothalamus, controls eating.
    5. Clue to eat is not level of blood sugar alone, it is the utilization of the sugar in the body.
  2. The Brain Mechanisms for Eating
    1. The Hypothalamus
      1. (VMH) Ventromedial Hypothalamus - involved with feelings of fullness and satiation. If damaged unable to stop eating (rat study)
      2. (LH) Lateral Hypothalamus - if damaged, eating stops.
    2. Hypothalamus in hunger regulation
      1. Stomach contractions
      2. Blood sugar levels - insulin moves sugar into cells, glucagon causes liver to release sugar:
        
        Lowering of glucose
        
        Hunger center stimulated
        Satiety center inhibited
      3. Blood fat levels (glycerol):
        
        Increase of fats
        
        hunger center stimulated
        satiety center inhibited
      4. Learned Clues
        
        Time, place, person, associate eating with these, or with reduction of anxiety. Strong reinforcers to continue behavior. We become conditioned to external clues.
        Internal or external clues?
        
        External clues - (Schachter); we pay attention to external clues to control our eating.
        Internal clues; we are aware of internal clues, hunger fullness, etc.
  3. Little evidence to support only effect of external or internal clues, instead a combination of events determine weight.
  4. Over eating and Obesity - discussion
    1. See sex differences, women overestimate the problem, yet incidence is about equal for both sexes.
    2. Obesity is 20% over normal expected weight.
    3. Weight gain is because you eat more than you need, Not the amount you eat only the excess of energy consumed.
Concept of Set-Point
1. Theory of pre-determined ratio of fat to lean.
2. Factors include: genetics, weight, early feeding experiences, and development of hypothalamic eating centers.
3. Recent research into habits of obese people suggest they are not over-eaters!
Weight Control - Big Business
1. Over 90% of those who lose weight regain it within a year.
2. Cognitive Behavior Modification
  1. Step 1 - monitor your thoughts and behavior.
  2. Step 2 - Identify thoughts and stimuli associated with eating
    1. ideas
    2. clues
    3. self statements
    4. anxiety reducers
  3. Step 3 - Change self statements and eating behaviors
    1. change speed and size of food eaten.
    2. focus on positive
    3. change environment for eating
  4. Step 4 - Reinforce your new behaviors
Thirst
1. Extracellular (body water loss)
2. Intracellular (cell water loss)
3. Mouth Dryness and temperature
4. Total blood volume - sensed by kidneys, secrete angiotensin which affects the hypothalamus and then the cortex causing message to drink.
Sex Drive
1. May be misnomer, is a drive in lower animals which is triggered by hormones secreted in blood during estrus.
2. Humans are effected less by hormones, but still influenced. Testosterone is the hormone of major influence in males and females.
3. Expectations, attitudes, cultural, and emotional factors play large role in the drive.
4. Pheromones - chemicals in the sense of smell
5. Copulins - fatty acids secreted by females which affect male drive
6. Non-homeostatic - not needed to maintain biological state
7. Sexual response cycle
  1. Excitement
  2. Plateau
  3. Orgasmic
  4. Resolution/Refraction
8. Comparison to other motives
  1. Under control of hypothalamus, perhaps limbic system - excite or inhibit
  2. Influenced by external stimuli
  3. Affected by learning
  4. Affected by our emotions - parasympathetic NS, sympathetic NS stimulus suppresses sexual arousal (cause of sexual dysfunction)
Stimulus Motives
1. Unlearned motive, depends on external stimuli rather than on internal physiological states
2. Activity
  1. Unsure if individual motive or a combination of other motives.
  2. Needed by all animals but influenced by individual differences and states
3. Exploration and curiosity
  1. Wanting to know, motivating
4. Manipulation
  1. Directed toward specific object that must be manipulated or touched
5. Contact
  1. Broad need, related to development
  2. Harlow's monkey experiment is good example
Learned Motives
1. Aggression
  1. Behavior aimed at doing harm to others
  2. Linked to frustration and pain
  3. Freud believed it an innate drive
  4. Others see it as a learned response in the face of frustration
  5. Currently believed to be a learned motive
2. Achievement
  1. A social motive, to excel accomplish
  2. 3 interrelated concepts -- Work orientation, Mastery and Competitiveness
3. Power
  1. Need for recognition and control
4. Affiliation
  1. Need to be with others
  2. Related to internal and external factors
Maslow's hierarchy of needs: An ordering of strength
1. Physiological Needs
2. Safety Needs
3. Love & Belonging
4. Self-Esteem
5. The need to self-actualize one's self.
Emotions
1. Emotions - "complex mixture of subjective and objective factors regulated by the nervous and hormonal systems"
2. Emotions Involve behavioral, psychological, and cognitive components.
3. Opponent - Process Theory: (Solomon 1980) If a strong stimulus causes some strong emotion, an opposite emotion occurs when the stimulus ends.
4. Physical Components of Emotions
  1. Hypothalamus -
    1. The identified pleasure center.
    2. Suggested involvement in many drives, including, anger, sex, and basic physiological needs.
    3. Areas of brain combine and integrate with other areas to produce a variety of emotions, some can be somewhat identified into specific centers and emotions.
  2. Limbic System -
    1. One of first areas of brain to react to stimulus of some sort which is translated into emotional response, can be studied.
    2. Rage or pleasure, in concert with hypothalamus and reticular formation.
  3. Reticular Formation -
    1. Influenced by neurotransmitters and hormones.
Theories of Emotions
1. James-Lange Physiological Reaction Theory - William James & Carl Lange
  1. Feel 1^st , Label emotion 2^nd
  2. Each emotion arises from different pattern of physiological arousal.
  3. Feelings or emotions are labels applied after we become aware of bodily reactions.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory
  1. Stimulus causes both a physiological response and a labeling of emotion.
3. Cognitive Theory -
  1. All emotional states change arousal of nervous system
  2. Environment gives us clue to what we should feel
  3. Interaction between physiological process and interpretation
  4. Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer
    1. Injected subjects with epinephrine, told them they were vitamins, they were placed in different situations, one in where others were happy another where others were angry.
    2. Those in happy situation acted happy, those in angry situation acted angry. Used situational clues to determine emotion. They noticed and thought about these clues.
4. Expectations Theory
  1. People develop expectations about consequences of their actions
  2. Then set goals accordingly e.g. if I control my eating I can control problems in my life
  3. Therefore I demonstrate this with self-starvation
5. Attributions Theory
  1. Locus of control
  2. If attribute success to own abilities, tend to persist toward goals
  3. If attribute success of outside factors or luck tend to give up
6. Theory of Cognitive Dissonance - Leo Festinger
  1. "A state of tension that occurs whenever a person holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent"
  2. It's occurrence is unpleasant, we are driven to reduce the anxiety.
  3. We try to change one or both of the cognitions to render them more compatible.
  4. e.g. Smoking - if can't quite, try to discredit or reduce anxiety of opposing cognition.
  5. Dissonance reducing is often "irrational" - prevents change or learning, it is only ego-defensive.
  6. Similar result is after we make a difficult decision, we look for evidence to support it
7. Facial Feedback Hypothesis
  1. Feedback from the facial muscles are major cause of emotion, believed by Darwin.
  2. Specific emotions are perceived across cultures as the similar emotions .

Key Terms for Motivation and Emotion

Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.

Instinct An instinct is a complex behavior that is rigid, patterned throughout a species, and unlearned.

Drive-reduction Theory Drive-reduction theory attempts to explain behavior as arising from a physiological need that creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Homeostasis Homeostasis refers to the body's tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state.

Incentives Incentives are positive or negative environmental stimuli that motivate behavior.

Hierarchy of Needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that human motives may be ranked from the basic, physiological level through higher-level needs for safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization, and that until they are satisfied, the more basic needs are more compelling than the higher-level ones.

Glucose Glucose, or blood sugar, is the major source of energy for the body. Elevating the level of glucose in the body will reduce hunger.

Set Point Set point is an individual's regulated weight level, which is maintained by adjusting food intake and energy output.

Metabolic Rate Metabolic rate is the body's resting rate of energy expenditure.

Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder, most common in adolescent females, in which a person restricts food intake to become significantly underweight and yet still feels fat.

Bulimia Nervosa Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by repeated "binge-purge" episodes of overeating followed by vomiting or laxative use.

Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, rather than for some external reason. Intrinsic means "internal": A person who is intrinsically motivated is motivated from within.

Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior in order to obtain a reward or avoid a punishment. Extrinsic means "external": A person who is extrinsically motivated is motivated by some outside factor.

Two-factor Theory Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must be both physiologically aroused and cognitively label the arousal.

James-Lange Theory Emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

Cannon-Bard Theory Emotion simultaneously triggers a physiological response and the subjective experience of the emotion.

*Key Terms for Motivation and Emotion*
Motivation	Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.
Instinct	An instinct is a complex behavior that is rigid, patterned throughout a species, and unlearned.
Drive-reduction Theory	Drive-reduction theory attempts to explain behavior as arising from a physiological need that creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
Homeostasis	Homeostasis refers to the body's tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state.
Incentives	Incentives are positive or negative environmental stimuli that motivate behavior.
Hierarchy of Needs	Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that human motives may be ranked from the basic, physiological level through higher-level needs for safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization, and that until they are satisfied, the more basic needs are more compelling than the higher-level ones.
Glucose	Glucose, or blood sugar, is the major source of energy for the body. Elevating the level of glucose in the body will reduce hunger.
Set Point	Set point is an individual's regulated weight level, which is maintained by adjusting food intake and energy output.
Metabolic Rate	Metabolic rate is the body's resting rate of energy expenditure.
Anorexia Nervosa	Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder, most common in adolescent females, in which a person restricts food intake to become significantly underweight and yet still feels fat.
Bulimia Nervosa	Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by repeated "binge-purge" episodes of overeating followed by vomiting or laxative use.
Intrinsic Motivation	Intrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, rather than for some external reason. Intrinsic means "internal": A person who is intrinsically motivated is motivated from within.
Extrinsic Motivation	Extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior in order to obtain a reward or avoid a punishment. Extrinsic means "external": A person who is extrinsically motivated is motivated by some outside factor.
Two-factor Theory	Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must be both physiologically aroused and cognitively label the arousal.
James-Lange Theory	Emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.
Cannon-Bard Theory	Emotion simultaneously triggers a physiological response and the subjective experience of the emotion.