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Intelligence

I. Intelligence Assessment

A. Intelligence is the "cognitive ability to learn from experience, to reason well, and to cope with demands of daily living." or as stated by Wechsler "ability to act purposefully, think rationally and to be able to deal effectively with the environment."

II. Spearman - Develops a single concept of general intelligence - a "g" factor

III. Thurstone - Concept of 7 different mental abilities

IV. Cattell - Two clusters of mental ability

A. Crystallized Intelligence - reasoning and verbal skills

B. Fluid Intelligence - spatial, visual

V. Sternberg -- Cognitive components of intelligence - The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

A.Componential Intelligence-learning new information
B. Experiential Intelligence - solving specific problems, creative, insight
C. Contextual Intelligence - ability to select contexts in which you can excel

VI. Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

A.Linguistic

B. Logical - mathematical

C. Musical

D. Spatial

E. Bodily - Kinesthetic

F. Interpersonal

G. Intrapersonal

VII. Heritability of Intelligence

A. Tryon's rat experiments suggests some genetic link.(1940's)

B. Supported by twin studies

C. Suggested 50/50, nature/nurture

VIII. The Nature of Psychological Testing

A. An objective and standardized sample of behavior.

1. Standardized - implies uniformity in administration & scoring. Standardization is the process of defining meaningful scores on a test by administering it to a large representative sample of people.

B. Reliability

1. A measure of consistency, if you take a test and get a score today, will you get the same score tomorrow and next week?

2. Measured with testing correlations, use the split-half and test/re-test methods

C. Validity

1. Does the test measure what it says it measures?

2. Does it accurately measure the trait, construct, or content?

a. Content Validity - does the test measure what it says it measures, based on content of items or concept of test itself.

b. Criterion Validity - checks test against a dependent measure, does it describe and predict?

D. The Normal Curve - the key to understanding tests and norm groups. Represents a theoretical distribution of scores, larger numbers obtain scores at the middle and there are fewer and fewer who obtain scores found at the tails of the curve.

IX. Intelligence Must be "Operationally Defined" = defined by specifying what procedures will be used to measure it.

A. Remember test should be regarded as tools

B. IQ is markedly stable over time

X. Nature of Intelligence

A. IQ definition differs by form and type of test

1. An expression of ability level at point in time. All scores are in relation to age norms.

B. It cannot explain the reasons for the score

C. Intelligence is composed of several functions

D. Majority are dependent on verbal abilities

E. Many functions of value in our culture are un-measured by tests which focus on verbal, numeric, or abstract skills

XI. Tests

A. Alfred Binet 1905 - originally designed to predict performance of school aged children, gave concept of mental age

B. IQ = MA/CA x 100

C. Test set up so not all can answer, easy to hard for specific age, start at a Basal Level where each child can do all questions, continue up to where student fails

D. Compared to own norm group

E. Stanford-Binet, the revision in 1916

F. WAIS - R

1. Verbal Scales-

a. Information - general information avoiding specialized or academic knowledge

b. Digit Span - Or-ally reproducing series or digits, forward and reversed

c. Vocabulary - definition of words, increasing difficulty

d. Arithmetic - Oral problem solving

e. Comprehension - Situations in which client describes what must be done in certain situations, practical judgment & common sense

f. Similarities - Say in what way two things are alike

2. Performance Scales -

a. Picture Completion - Tell what part is missing from picture

b. Picture Arrangement - Put pictures in proper sequence

c. Block Design - Reproduce designs using blocks

d. Object Assembly - Re-assembling puzzle like blocks to make a flat picture

e. Digit Symbol - code substitution, fill in as many of symbols as he can under numbers on answer sheet

G. Scales of the WISC - R

1. Verbal -

a. Information

b. Similarities

c. Arithmetic

d. Vocabulary

e. Comprehension

2. Performance

a. Picture Completion

b. Picture Arrangement

c. Block Design

d. Object Assembly

e. Coding

Cognition & Language

I. Cognition - Intellectual processes from which information is obtained, transformed, manipulated, stored, retrieved and otherwise used, "The process of thinking"

II. Concept - "a basic unit of thinking, mental category for classifying objects, people or experiences."

A. Natural Concepts - Basic inclusiveness, a relationship, such as Size, Shape, Color, or Position. They allow us to give meanings to new experiences (dogs or books). We do not have a new concept for each new experience. We may modify some of the old concepts to fit new experiences. "Conceptualize" means to group or categorize and to generalize.

B.Prototype - Best example of a concept. Most concepts are fuzzy, poorly defined, thus, we construct a prototype. It is a mental model containing the most typical features of a concept. When we think of a concept we think of the prototype, never perfect.

Prototype - dogs bark

But all dogs do not bark

III.Problem Solving and Cognition

A: Hypothesis Testing Theory - Form ideas and guesses about concept and then test and use results to form a new or modified concept.

B. Decision Making - Use Reasoning, We generate logical and coherent ideas, evaluate them and generate an outcome

C. Generate Syllogisms - A sequence of premises followed by a conclusion. Not often accurate.

Premise 1 - All poodles are dogs
Premise 2 - All dogs are animals

D. Conceptual Set - Hard to break set as in 9-dot problem. Why not go outside the dots?

E. Trial and Error - Simple method, may take long time

F. Algorithm - A method that guarantees a solution if carried out. Applying a formula such as Ex. - area of circle = r²

IV. Obstacles to Solving Problems

A. Emotional Arousal/Motivation - To little hinders (do nothing), Too much hinders (especially on complex problems)

B. Breaking Sets - The tendency to approach problems in certain ways.

1. Can be helpful: - Use methods that have worked in past
2. Can be harmful: - May need to change or give up sets

C. Functional Fixedness - Tendency to perceive a limited number of uses for an object, interfering with problem solving process

Key Terms

Cognition Mental activity associated with thinking, knowing and remembering

Concept A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people

Prototype Best example of a concept.

Algorithm Logical rules that guarantee a solution.

Heuristic A rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to solve problems efficiently.

Insight Sudden realization of a solution to a problem

Functional Fixedness Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways

Mental Set Failure to break failure patterns of problem solving staying with old methods of solving problems when newer ones are available

Creativity Novel and new ways of thinking leading to new solutions, requires divergent thinking. Produces novel and valuable ideas.

Convergent Thinking Generating limited solutions to a problem, narrowed thinking.

Divergent Thinking Generating unlimited possible solutions to a problem, open ended thinking.

Intelligence Hypothetical construct underlying behavior. Mental Abilities needed to select, adapt to and shape environments.

Mental Age Measure of intelligence developed by Binet. A given age based on the problem solving ability of children as opposed to their chronological age.

Psychometrics The theory and practice of psychological testing.

IQ Intelligence quotient. Originally defined as as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. Average of 100.

Standardization Uniform standards of administration and scoring. Defines meaningful scores by comparison with a pretested standardization group.

Reliability A measure of consistency of a test. Reliable tests gives the same results no matter how or when administered.

Validity The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure.

WAIS Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale the most widely used intelligence test for adults.

WISC Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. The most widely used intelligence test for children.

Normal Curve A symmetrical bell-shaped curve or graph that describes the distribution of physical or psychological attributes. So named because of its "bell" shape, with the average or most common score at the middle or peak, with the tails that slope off representing less frequent scores.

Aptitude Test Test designed to measure future performance. The capacity to learn.

Achievement Test Test designed to measure what a person has already learned.

Criterion The behavior that a test is designed to predict. For example, college GPA, if using the SAT to predict how a well one might do in college.

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Key Terms
Cognition	Mental activity associated with thinking, knowing and remembering
Concept	A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people
Prototype	Best example of a concept.
Algorithm	Logical rules that guarantee a solution.
Heuristic	A rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to solve problems efficiently.
Insight	Sudden realization of a solution to a problem
Functional Fixedness	Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways
Mental Set	Failure to break failure patterns of problem solving staying with old methods of solving problems when newer ones are available
Creativity	Novel and new ways of thinking leading to new solutions, requires divergent thinking. Produces novel and valuable ideas.
Convergent Thinking	Generating limited solutions to a problem, narrowed thinking.
Divergent Thinking	Generating unlimited possible solutions to a problem, open ended thinking.
Intelligence	Hypothetical construct underlying behavior. Mental Abilities needed to select, adapt to and shape environments.
Mental Age	Measure of intelligence developed by Binet. A given age based on the problem solving ability of children as opposed to their chronological age.
Psychometrics	The theory and practice of psychological testing.
IQ	Intelligence quotient. Originally defined as as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. Average of 100.
Standardization	Uniform standards of administration and scoring. Defines meaningful scores by comparison with a pretested standardization group.
Reliability	A measure of consistency of a test. Reliable tests gives the same results no matter how or when administered.
Validity	The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure.
WAIS	Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale the most widely used intelligence test for adults.
WISC	Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. The most widely used intelligence test for children.
Normal Curve	A symmetrical bell-shaped curve or graph that describes the distribution of physical or psychological attributes. So named because of its "bell" shape, with the average or most common score at the middle or peak, with the tails that slope off representing less frequent scores.
Aptitude Test	Test designed to measure future performance. The capacity to learn.
Achievement Test	Test designed to measure what a person has already learned.
Criterion	The behavior that a test is designed to predict. For example, college GPA, if using the SAT to predict how a well one might do in college.